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October 18, 2004
By the contemplative recluse monk Sotapanna Jhanananda (Jeffrey S, Brooks)
(copyright 2004 all rights reserved)
This author’s editorial efforts in regards to translations of the Pali canon have often been met with a high degree of criticism from people who are incensed that someone would consider making any alteration to those translations, as if the translation itself is the “blessed words of the Buddha.” What these amateur critics do not know is there is no word-for-word comparison between ancient Pali and the present English language. In fact every translation between any two languages, even contemporary Romance language, let alone a 2,600 year old dead liturgical language, and English often requires a great deal of interpretation to accomplish. This is true for anyone regardless if they have a masters in education, are a scholar, or have an executive MBA.
While this author honors and respects the translators who have given us the fruits of their labors in translating the Pali canon into English, for the most part the Pali-English dictionaries and translations of the canon that we have available to us were most probably rendered by scholars, few of whom (if any) actually engaged in the contemplative practices of Buddhism. And, since the Buddha was a contemplative and he was speaking to contemplatives, then we should at the very least have skilled contemplatives, who are native speakers of the English language, as participants in the rendering of the Pali canon into our language.
Buddhism was first and foremost a contemplative tradition, and it was taught by a contemplative. Scholars who wish to produce a functional understanding of the words of Sidharta Gotama, the historic Buddha, really should either have a rigorous contemplative practice regimen in addition to their scholarship, or look to those native speakers of English who are contemplatives, when rendering a translation of the sutras/suttas into English. The Nikayas in translation at present seem to have some serious failings in either an understanding of the subjective experiences of the contemplative, or there is a lack of understanding of the English language of cognition and gnosis, which has resulted in an English canon of Buddhist literature that is rather weak to say the least.
One of the naïve errors made by many translators is assuming there is a single word in the English language that applies in all cases to a given Pali or Sanskrit term. Translators must understand that within every word choice in translation there is a value judgment based upon interpretation. And, there can be many interpretations acquired through translation. It is the shades of meaning that pervade each word-choice in translation that can lead one in one direction, verses another. If a translator has a bias for dry insight, for instance, then he or she is likely to make different choices in the shades of meaning in his/her translation than a moist ecstatic is going to make. The same is true if the translator happens to be a follower of one of the devotional forms of Buddhism, such as Pure Land, or one of the intensely ritual forms such as the many Tibetan schools of Buddhism.
Every word for an abstract concept, such as ecstasy, has an arc of meaning that it scribes through the understanding of native speakers of that language. The best a translator can hope to do is match the intended meaning of a word in one language with the intersecting arc of a word in translation. This means it is very unlikely that any word in a language is going to have a static relationship with a language it is being translated into. This is especially true of intangible concepts surrounding gnosis, such as ecstasy, which I have found is not well understood by most people in any language or culture, because so few have had the experience. This would explain why in this culture ecstasy is thought to be an illicit street drug, not the consequence of a skillful executed contemplative life.
Unfortunately to make a change in the world of Pali and Sanskrit translation might require an accomplished mystic in the Buddhist tradition to then go out and get academic credentials to support his or her more precise translations. But, the academic journey is not conducive to a contemplative life so we are not likely to ever acquire someone with both achievements, unless an individual first receives a Ph.D. in Asian or Buddhist studies, then engages in a rigorous meditation practice for10 or more years.
Since there is no word-for-word translation that is absolutely accurate under all uses of a term for abstract concepts between any two languages then a translator must be sensitive to the subtle shades of the intended context for every term because every word has shades of meaning, thus requiring interpretation in all translation. This is especially true when a single word is used in a large document, like the Pali canon, where its meaning moves throughout the various shades of its meaning within its cultural context.
As an example of how variable a single abstract concept can be let us look at the Pali term ‘nimitta’. Unfortunately this word is almost always translated as “sign.” Its meaning however is more like the characteristics of any given object or experience. Even though ‘sign’ and ‘characteristics’ have similar meaning, this contemplative finds the English term ‘characteristics’ to be closer to the mark to fill the needed translation in almost every case, but not all.’
In the suttas/sutras ‘nimitta’ is most often used for the characteristics of a sense object that makes it appealing to the ego. However ’nimitta’ has also been used as the characteristics of absorption. In this case the word would best be rendered as charism, than sign or characteristics, although the word ‘characteristics’ is certainly acceptable.
We must also realize that as much as we want to believe that we can penetrate the Pali canon to discover the meaning of the Buddha’s discourses, Pali is a dead language. The context for it was 2,600 years ago, therefore the context and the shades of meaning are no doubt long lost as well. We can only do our best at resurrecting that language from the dead through following the Noble Eightfold Path as best as we can and through that process hope that we gain the necessary insight (vipassana) that reveals to us the original meaning and intent that Sidharta is said to have had when he supposedly used that term.
We could certainly point to the body of English literature as an example of how language changes, even in a literate society, and in a rather short period of time. Today the English language is so variable throughout its domain that few North Americans can understand the “English” of the English. Now, if we look back at Shakespeare’s (1564-1616) English, his Elizabethan English is difficult for many North Americans to penetrate, and he was only writing 400 years ago. Chaucer (1340-1400), the author of “The Canterbury Tales,” was writing only 200 years earlier than Shakespeare, but his English is so radically different than our present day English that few native speakers of English can read it without translation.
Thus, who is to say what the shades of meaning were intended by Sidharta Gotama, when he is said to have uttered them 300 years before they were even written down? Certainly a scholar, who rarely meditates if ever, could not be expected to penetrate the meaning of the writing of any mystic, such as Sidharta Gotama. Only an accomplished contemplative, who through a rigorous contemplative practice regimen, can be expected to penetrate the meaning of the literature of the mystic. A contemplative, who has successfully penetrated the meaning of the teachings of a mystic, must have meditated until he or she has realized all of the subjective states (attainments) the mystic (in this case Sidharta Gotama) was talking about. Only such a one can speak authoritatively on those attainments.
For the purpose of comparison this author has chosen the Dhammapada for discovering this variability in translation because it is the most commonly translated document within the Pali canon. In fact the Dhammapada, which was rendered into Danish in 1855 is “the first Pali text ever critically edited in Europe” (Conze). It was translated by the Danish pioneer of Pali Studies, Viggo Fausboll (1821-1908). You will be happy to find an English translation of Fausboll’s Danish version on this list.
A classic example, of the variability in translation, can be revealed by examining the various translations of the Dhammapada. The Dhammapada has probably been translated by more translators than any Pali text, therefore we have many examples of attempts to get at what the Buddha had to say in the many translations of this document. In fact this author was able to find 20 different translations of the Dhammapada on the stacks of the library of the University of Arizona, where this essay was prepared.
Stanza 372 was chosen specifically because it is an often quoted stanza that is used to support a belief that Sidharta Gotama taught a practice strategy called “vipassana,” and that he proposed this practice strategy as a means of avoiding the ecstasies (jhanas). This is in fact an ancient conflict within the various vehicles and traditions of Buddhism, which has been summarized in the “wet verses dry” controversy. The ‘wets’ propose that the cultivation of the ecstasies (jhanas) is essential to following the Noble Eightfold Path. They argue ecstasy (jhana) was the Buddha’s very definition of the Eighth fold of the Noble Eightfold Path (DN 22.21). The ‘drys’, on the other hand, claim ecstasy (jhana) is not needed. Unfortunately there is so little support for the dry premise within the Discourse of the Buddha that they tend to site stanza 372 from the Dhammapada in support of their claim. Thus much for the ‘drys’ hinges upon this one small stanza.
Let us simply take this single verse, 372, and examine how the four key Pali-to-English dictionaries render it. We will begin with the Pali first for comparison and follow it with a rough dictionary translation.
Dhammapada Verse 372, (Pali)
"Natthi jhanam apaññassa
pañña natthi ajhayato
yamhi jhanan ca pañña ca
sa ve nibbanasantike."
(Buddhadatta)
The four Pali-to-English dictionaries consulted for this project are the primary Pali-to-English dictionaries to have emerged in the last 150, or so, years of European scholarship of the Pali language. Using this highly scholarly venture perhaps we can penetrate the meaning of this Pali stanza and discover whether this stanza supports the claims of either the ‘wets’ or the ‘drys’, or both. For this study this author used these four Pali-to-English dictionaries: The first ever published, Robert Childers’ (1838-1876) “A Dictionary of the Pali language,” first published in 1876; the second dictionary consulted was the Pali Text Society’s “Pali-English Dictionary” edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede and published in 1921; the third dictionary used in this study was Nyanatiloka’s “Buddhist Dictionary,” first published in 1946, the third edition edited by Nyanaponika and published 1970; And finally, A.P. Buddhadatta’s (1887-1962) “Concise Pali-English Dictionary;” published in 1957.
What we get from the dictionaries in order of appearance of the term is as follows. (Please note that in several cases the Pali term is rendered in only one or two of the dictionaries consulted):
Natthi -there is not (Childers)
Jhanam –(this word is derived from ‘jhana’), Meditation, contemplation, religious meditation or abstraction of mind, mystic or abstract meditation, ecstasy, trance (Childers).
Jhana (nt) from jhayati BSk. Dhyana, from meditation on objects and burning up anything adverse. Literally meditation. It is a technical term for a special religious experience. Reached in a certain order of mental states…It will be seen that there is no suggestion of trance, but rather of an enhanced vitality. In the descriptions of the crises in the religious experiences of the Christian saints and mystics, expressions similar to those used in the jhanas are frequent (Rhys Davids).
Jhana- nt. Concentration of mind; meditation; a constituent of meditation (Buddhadatta).
Jhana –Absorption (trance, meditation), refers chiefly to the four meditative absorptions. They are achieved through full ecstatic concentration (appana, s. samadhi), during which there is a complete, though temporary, suspension of fivefold sense-activity and of the five hindrances (s. nirvana). The state of consciousness, however, is one of full alertness and lucidity (Nyanatiloka).
In the case of the term ‘jhana’ it is often translated as ‘meditation’ or ‘concentration’, however Sidharta Gotama interpreted it as characterized by bliss (piiti) and joy (sukha) (DN 22.21), so for him this must have been some kind of subjective state that lay beyond the simple exercise of meditation and concentration. In fact he said it was a desirable pleasure to be cultivated (MN 139), which was "Di.t.thadhammasukhavihaaraa" a "pleasant abiding in the here and now" (MN 8). With this kind of description I am inclined to agree with Rhys Davids, when he says “In the descriptions of the crises in the religious experiences of the Christian saints and mystics, expressions similar to those used in the jhanas are frequent.” Thus Childers maybe correct when he suggested ‘ecstasy’ as a translation for ‘jhana’. And, since this writer’s contemplative practice has evolved to a very pleasant stage, then this seems like further support for the term ‘ecstasy’ as a more true and descriptive translation for ‘jhana’ than does either ‘meditation’ or ‘concentration’.
Apanno-is a compound word made up of ‘a’ and ‘panna.’ The Pali prefix ‘a’ is a negative, so without ‘Pañña’ or without wisdom or foolish (Childers).
Apanna –ignorant (Rhys Davids).
The Pali term ‘Apannassa’ is not mentioned in the four dictionaries, however related terms are. It is a compound word made up of ‘a’ and ‘Pañña. Since the Pali prefix ‘a’ is a negative, then ‘Apannassa’ is without ‘Pañña’ or wisdom, which could be rendered as ‘foolish’ or ‘ignorant’ however since both panna and apañña are used in this stanza, then it would seem “without wisdom” is the implied use.
Pañña - wisdom; intellect, reason, through or by or with wisdom, wisely, wisdom obtained by thought, wisdom obtained by study, wisdom obtained by meditation (Childers).
Pañña (adj.) of wisdom, endowed with knowledge or insight, possessed of the highest cognition (Rhys Davids).
Pañña - wisdom; knowledge; insight. The code of intellectual duties; practice for the attainment of highest knowledge (Buddhadatta).
Pañña –Understanding, knowledge, Wisdom, insight, comprises a very wide field. The specific Buddhist knowledge or wisdom, however, as part of the Noble Eightfold Path to deliverance, is insight, i.e. That initiative knowledge which brings about the 4 stages of Holiness and the realization of Nibbana and which comprises penetration of Impermanence (anicca), Misery (dhukka) and Impersonality (anatta) of all forms of existence (Nyanatiloka).
The translations for ‘pañña’ suggest understanding, knowledge, wisdom, insight, intellect, reason. Childers says the Pali cannon mentions there are three kinds of ‘pañña’ or wisdom, which suggests the Pali language may not be sophisticated enough to distinguish between these three kinds, even though they do so intellectually: These three kinds of Pañña’ (wisdom) are: wisdom obtained by thought; wisdom obtained by study; and wisdom obtained by meditation.
In our language we tend to call wisdom “obtained by thought” ‘reasoning’ or’ understanding’. And, we tend to call wisdom “obtained by study ‘intellect’ or ‘knowledge’. Since meditative absorption, or ecstasy, is clearly mentioned in this stanza, not just the practice of meditation (sati), then it seems reasonable to reject both ‘reasoning’ and ‘intellect’ as possible choices in this translation. We also know that there is a Pali term for ‘insight’, which is ‘vipassana’, thus it seems we can reject ‘insight’ as well as a possible choice in translation. We can then conclude that ‘wisdom’ is probably the best choice.
Jhayati - is related to the term ‘jhana’ and means to shine, perceive, to meditate, contemplate, think upon, brood over, search for or hunt after (Rhys Davids).
Ajhayato -is not mentioned in the four dictionaries consulted, however it seems clearly to be another compound made up of the negative ‘a’ prefix this time with ‘Jhayati’ as its suffix, which is related again to the term ‘jhana’ thus it would seem to mean “without jhana or ecstasy.”
Yamhi -yo- Who, what, which, he who, whoever (Childers).
Yamhi -to be combined with (Rhys Davids)
Jhanan -this word is most certainly derived from jhana, but none of the dictionaries offered a specific meaning for it.
Ca –(copulative, or disjunctive particle), and, then, now (Buddhadatta).
Ca-and, but even (Childers).
Ca-what about? How is it? ever, whoever, what-ever (Rhys Davids).
Sa -one’s own, through one’s actions (Buddhadatta).
Sa -possessed of, having (Rhys Davids).
Ve –particle of affirmation, indeed, truly, surely. (Buddhadatta).
Ve -part, of affirmation, emphasizing the preceding word: indeed, truly; his own (Rhys Davids).
The Pali term ‘nibbanasantike’ is not translated by the four dictionaries, but it seems to be a compound word made up of ‘nibbana’ and ‘Santiko’, please see below:
Nibbanam extinction, destruction, annihilation, annihilation of being, annihilation of human passion, Arahantship or final sanctification (Childers).
Nibbana (BSk nirvana) to blow, [the extinguishing of fire, which is the prevailing Buddhist concept of the term]. To exhaust the fuel of burning, to blow out a lamp, 2. health, in the sense of bodily well-being, such as the passing away of feverishness and restlessness, 3. The dying out in the heart of the threefold fire of raga, dosa, & moha: lust, ill-will, & stupidity (Buddhistic meaning). 4. the sense of spiritual well-being, of security, emancipation, victory and peace, salvation, bliss (Rhys Davids).
Nibbana –Skr. Nirvana; lit. ‘Extinction’ (nir + va, to cease blowing, to become extinquished); according to the commentaries; ‘Freedom from desire’ (nir + vana). Nibbana constitutes the highest and ultimate goal of all Buddhist aspirations, i.e. absolute extinction of that life-affirming will manifested as Greed, Hatred, and Delusion, and convulsively clinging to existence; and therewith also the ultimate and absolute deliverance from all future rebirth, old age, disease, and death, from all suffering and misery. Cf. Paranibbana (Nyanatiloka).
Nibbana – cooling, extinction (of a fire), emancipation, the final bliss, destruction (Buddhadatta).
Santiko -adj. Vicinity, keeping near, in the presence of, towards (Childers)
Santika -vicinity, presence, in the presence of, towards, with, by or along with (Rhys Davids).
Oddly none of the four dictionaries offered a simple single word translation for ‘nibbana’ as if the English language had never considered the ideas behind nibbana prior to the arrival of Buddhism. Of course this is untrue. One need only read the rich literature of religious aspiration from the Gnostics to the present to reveal the idea of a “highest and ultimate goal of religious aspiration” that is often described as “extinction, annihilation, destruction, emancipation, a final bliss,“ which is often further described as a freedom from the “seven deadly sins,” which should be reasonably equivalent to the Buddhist concept of being free of the hindrances of “Greed, Hatred, and Delusion.” That one word is often referred to as ‘enlightenment.’
When we look at the suffix of the compound Pali term ‘nibbanasantike’, which is Santike, we have “near to” or “in the presence of” (Childers/ Rhys Davids). Thus it seems reasonable to translate ‘nibbanasantike’ as either “in the presence of, or near to enlightenment.
We can now put all of this together as below:
"There is no ecstasy without wisdom,
There is no wisdom without ecstasy.
Whoever has both wisdom and ecstasy
Is truly close to enlightenment.” (provisional, Brooks)
Now, let us examine how this stanza is revealed by 23 different translators. Let us see how true to the meaning of the stanza they remain.
23 Translations of Dhammapada Verse 372
Bancroft, Anne
“If you do not meditate, how will you gain insight?
And if you have no insight, how will you concentrate?
But if you concentrate with insight,
You will come near Nirvana.”
Here Bancroft has chosen to translate the Pali term ‘jhana’ as both ‘meditate’ and ‘concentrate’. Considering that jhana is defined in terms of bliss (piiti) and joy (sukha) in the Discourse of the Buddha (MN 22.21) then we can conclude this translation seems to want to diminish the importance of the ecstatic component of jhana.
This translator has also chosen to translate the Pali term ‘pañña’ as insight. While the Pali-to-English dictionaries suggest ‘insight’ as an optional translation for ‘pañña’ the original Pali actually used pañña, which means more precisely ‘wisdom’ not ‘insight’ and if the Buddha wanted to use the term ‘insight’ he would most likely have used the term ‘vipassana’ not pañña.
In her third line this translator implies that it is possible to have wisdom without ecstasy (jhana). While this contemplative is aware that this is a common belief among dry insight believers it does not seem to be a belief that Sidharta Gotama shared. If we examine the Fruits of the Contemplative Life Samaññaphala Sutta (DN 2)
Then we can see that Sidharta Gotama considered both absorption (jhana) and insight (vipassana) as “fruits” of the contemplative life, not practice strategies or “fruits” that are developed through separate practice strategies.
Through her diminishment of the subjective quality of jhana, which is ecstatic, and her choice of ‘insight’ for pañña, which is really best translated as ‘wisdom’ and finally her belief in multiple practice strategies, as evident in the dry insight dogma, then we can conclude that this translator has been most influenced by the ‘dry’ insight school.